Lhotshampa

The Lhotshampa (Nepali: ल्होत्साम्पा, literally "southerners") are an ethnic group of Bhutan whose members are of Nepali origin and predominantly reside in the southern foothills of the country. The term derives from the Dzongkha word Lho ("south") and tshampa ("border people" or "those of the border"). The Lhotshampa speak Nepali as their primary language and practise Hinduism, with smaller numbers following Buddhism and other traditions. They constitute a significant ethnic minority in Bhutan and are central to one of the most contentious chapters in the country's modern history — the Bhutanese refugee crisis of the 1990s, which resulted in the displacement of over 100,000 people.^[1]

The status of the Lhotshampa has been a subject of intense debate. The Royal Government of Bhutan has maintained that many of those who left southern Bhutan were recent illegal immigrants rather than bona fide citizens, and that departures were largely voluntary. International human rights organisations, academic researchers, and the displaced Lhotshampa themselves have documented widespread forced evictions, coercion, and human rights abuses during the period of mass departures. Understanding the Lhotshampa experience requires engagement with both perspectives and the complex historical record.^[2]

History of Settlement

The history of Nepali-speaking settlement in southern Bhutan is itself a matter of dispute. Lhotshampa oral traditions and some historical records suggest that Nepali-speaking communities have lived in the southern foothills for centuries, with significant migration beginning in the late nineteenth century. The British colonial administration in India actively encouraged Nepali settlement in the Himalayan borderlands, including southern Bhutan, to clear forests for agriculture and provide labour for infrastructure projects. By the early twentieth century, Nepali-speaking communities were well established in the dzongkhags (districts) of Samtse, Chukha, Dagana, Sarpang, Tsirang, and Samdrup Jongkhar.^[3]

Under the reign of the first and second kings, Ugyen Wangchuck and Jigme Wangchuck, the Nepali-speaking population in the south grew substantially. The government in Thimphu generally tolerated and in some cases encouraged this settlement to develop the agricultural potential of the southern lowlands. The 1958 Nationality Law, enacted under King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, granted Bhutanese citizenship to Nepali-speaking residents who had lived in the country for at least ten years, owned farmland, and registered with the government. This law was a landmark acknowledgment of the Lhotshampa as part of the Bhutanese polity. Many Lhotshampa were integrated into public life, holding government positions, serving in the National Assembly, and contributing to the national economy.^[4]

Population and Demographics

Accurate population figures for the Lhotshampa have been difficult to establish, in part because Bhutan's census methodology and citizenship criteria have themselves been subjects of controversy. Before the crisis of the early 1990s, estimates suggested that the Lhotshampa constituted between 25 and 45 percent of Bhutan's total population, making them a very large minority or, by some reckonings, nearly equal in number to the Ngalop (Drukpa) majority of the north and west. The Royal Government has generally cited lower figures, while Lhotshampa advocacy groups and international organisations have cited higher estimates. After the mass departures of the 1990s, the Lhotshampa proportion of Bhutan's population declined significantly.^[5]

Language

The primary language of the Lhotshampa is Nepali (also known as Gorkhali or Lhotshamkha in the Bhutanese context). Nepali served as the medium of instruction in schools in southern Bhutan until 1990, when the government mandated Dzongkha as the sole national language of instruction. Many Lhotshampa are also conversant in Dzongkha, Bhutan's national language, particularly those who lived in mixed communities or held government positions. The suppression of Nepali-language education was a significant grievance during the political upheavals of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Religion and Culture

The majority of Lhotshampa are Hindu, practising traditions broadly similar to those found in Nepal and the eastern Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Assam. Temples, festivals such as Dashain (Dasara) and Tihar (Diwali), and life-cycle rituals form the core of Lhotshampa religious life. A smaller number of Lhotshampa practise Buddhism, and there is a degree of syncretic overlap between Hindu and Buddhist observances in some communities. Lhotshampa cultural practices — including dress, cuisine, music, and marriage customs — are closely related to broader Nepali cultural traditions, distinguishing them visibly and culturally from the predominantly Buddhist, Dzongkha-speaking Ngalop population of northern and western Bhutan.^[6]

The Citizenship Crisis and Displacement

The position of the Lhotshampa changed dramatically during the 1980s. Growing concern within the Bhutanese government about the demographic weight of the Nepali-speaking population — and anxiety about the potential for ethnic Nepali political dominance, as had occurred in neighbouring Sikkim (annexed by India in 1975 after its Nepali-origin majority voted for merger) — led to a series of policies aimed at strengthening Bhutanese national identity. The Citizenship Act of 1985 tightened nationality requirements, mandating proof of residence from 1958 rather than the previous 1958 law's ten-year threshold. The policy of Driglam Namzha ("the Way of Harmony"), promoted from 1989, required all Bhutanese citizens to adopt the dress, language, and cultural norms of the Ngalop majority, effectively marginalising Lhotshampa cultural expression.^[7]

The 1988 census in southern Bhutan classified many long-standing residents as "non-nationals" or "illegal immigrants." Protests erupted in southern Bhutan in 1990, with demonstrators demanding the restoration of civil rights, recognition of cultural identity, and an end to discriminatory policies. The government responded with force, and a pattern of arrests, torture, property confiscation, and forced signing of "voluntary migration forms" followed. Between 1990 and 1993, over 100,000 Lhotshampa fled or were expelled from Bhutan, with the vast majority ending up in refugee camps in southeastern Nepal administered by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).^[8]

The Royal Government of Bhutan has consistently maintained that the majority of those who departed were illegal immigrants who had entered Bhutan in the 1980s and that many left voluntarily, sometimes after receiving compensation for their property. The government has pointed to the threat of ethnic destabilisation and the need to preserve Bhutanese sovereignty and identity. International observers, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have documented extensive evidence of coercion, including beatings, arbitrary detention, rape, destruction of homes, and the confiscation of citizenship documents, contradicting the narrative of voluntary departure.^[9]

Refugee Camps and Third-Country Resettlement

For nearly two decades, the displaced Lhotshampa lived in seven UNHCR-administered refugee camps in Jhapa and Morang districts of southeastern Nepal. Despite fifteen rounds of bilateral talks between Bhutan and Nepal between 1993 and 2003, no agreement on repatriation was reached. In 2007, the United States, along with seven other countries (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, and the United Kingdom), began a large-scale third-country resettlement programme. By 2023, over 113,000 Bhutanese refugees had been resettled, with approximately 84,000 going to the United States, making it one of the largest refugee resettlement operations in modern history.^[10]

Present Situation

In Bhutan

A Lhotshampa population remains in southern Bhutan, though its precise size is uncertain. Those who retained or regained citizenship continue to live in the southern dzongkhags, participating in agriculture, education, and public life. Some Lhotshampa have served in the National Assembly and in government positions. The 2008 Constitution of Bhutan guarantees fundamental rights including freedom of religion, though observers have noted ongoing limitations on cultural expression and political participation for minority communities. The government has undertaken development initiatives in the south, including road construction, school building, and agricultural support programmes.

In the Diaspora

The resettled Lhotshampa diaspora has established vibrant communities across North America, Europe, and Australasia. Cities such as Columbus (Ohio), Pittsburgh, Atlanta, Burlington (Vermont), and Akron in the United States; Kitchener, Calgary, and Edmonton in Canada; and Adelaide and Perth in Australia have significant Bhutanese refugee populations. The diaspora has maintained cultural traditions including Nepali-language media, Hindu temples, cultural associations, and community festivals, while simultaneously navigating the challenges of integration, including language acquisition, employment, mental health, and intergenerational cultural change. A number of diaspora Lhotshampa have achieved notable success in education, business, politics, and the arts in their countries of resettlement.^[11]

Ongoing Debates

The question of the Lhotshampa remains one of the most sensitive issues in Bhutanese politics and society. Lhotshampa advocacy groups continue to call for the right of return, restoration of citizenship, and accountability for human rights abuses. The Bhutanese government has not offered a pathway for large-scale repatriation. The international community, while having facilitated resettlement, has been criticised by some advocates for accepting resettlement as a solution rather than pressing for repatriation and justice. The legacy of the crisis continues to shape Bhutanese politics, Bhutan's international reputation, and the lives of both the Lhotshampa who remain in Bhutan and those who live in the diaspora.

References

Contributed by Anonymous Contributor, Kathmandu