Kasho on Driglam Namzha (1989)

The Kasho (royal decree) on Driglam Namzha issued in 1989 by King Jigme Singye Wangchuck was a sweeping directive that mandated the observance of a national code of etiquette and dress throughout the Kingdom of Bhutan. Driglam Namzha — literally "the way of conscious discipline" — encompassed rules governing dress, behavior, architecture, and social conduct. While the government presented the decree as a necessary measure to protect and preserve Bhutanese cultural identity in the face of modernization, the policy had immediate and profound consequences for the Lhotshampa (ethnic Nepali) population of southern Bhutan, whose distinct cultural practices, language, and dress were effectively criminalized.

The 1989 Kasho is widely regarded by human rights organizations, scholars, and the Bhutanese refugee community as a cornerstone of the systematic campaign of cultural suppression and ethnic cleansing that would drive more than 100,000 Lhotshampa from their homeland in the early 1990s. The decree remains one of the most consequential and contested policy documents in modern Bhutanese history, representing the moment at which the state's program of forced cultural homogenization became explicit and enforceable by law.

Background and Context

The concept of Driglam Namzha has deep roots in Bhutanese history, tracing back to the governance of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, the 17th-century unifier of Bhutan, who established codes of conduct and dress as part of his efforts to consolidate a distinct Bhutanese national identity. However, the 1989 Kasho transformed what had been a broadly observed cultural tradition into a rigid, legally enforced mandate applied uniformly to all citizens regardless of their ethnic, linguistic, or cultural background.

The decree emerged against a backdrop of growing anxiety within the Bhutanese ruling establishment about demographic shifts. The 1988 census revealed that ethnic Nepalis constituted a significant proportion of Bhutan's population, particularly in the southern districts. This finding alarmed the northern Ngalong elite, who feared that their political and cultural dominance could be undermined. The Kasho on Driglam Namzha was thus not merely a cultural preservation measure but a deliberate instrument of ethno-national policy designed to assert a singular, Ngalong-defined Bhutanese identity over a diverse population^[1].

Key Provisions and Enforcement

The 1989 Kasho mandated the wearing of the gho (a knee-length robe for men) and kira (an ankle-length dress for women) — the traditional garments of the Ngalong and Sharchop communities of northern and eastern Bhutan — as the national dress. All citizens were required to wear these garments in public spaces, government offices, schools, and during official functions. For the Lhotshampa, whose traditional dress included the daura-suruwal for men and sari or kurta for women, this requirement was a direct assault on their cultural identity.

Alongside the dress code, the decree effectively banned the Nepali language from the school curriculum in southern Bhutan. Nepali-medium schools were closed or converted to Dzongkha-medium instruction, and Nepali-speaking teachers were dismissed or transferred. This language policy struck at the heart of Lhotshampa cultural life, as the Nepali language was the primary medium of education, literature, and religious practice for the community. Children who had been educated in Nepali were suddenly required to learn in a language they did not speak^[2].

Enforcement of the decree was backed by fines, imprisonment, and the denial of government services. Citizens found not wearing the prescribed national dress could be fined or turned away from schools, hospitals, and government offices. Reports from the period describe Lhotshampa citizens being publicly humiliated, beaten, or detained for wearing their traditional clothing. The policy was enforced with particular severity in the southern dzongkhags (districts), where the Lhotshampa population was concentrated.

Impact on Lhotshampa Culture

The Kasho on Driglam Namzha represented an existential threat to Lhotshampa cultural survival. By mandating the adoption of northern Bhutanese dress and the abandonment of the Nepali language in education, the decree sought to erase the visible markers of Lhotshampa identity. Hindu religious practices, which were integral to Lhotshampa life, were also subjected to increasing restrictions. Temples were closed, religious gatherings were monitored, and the public performance of Hindu rituals was discouraged.

The cultural impact extended beyond dress and language. The enforcement of Driglam Namzha was accompanied by a broader atmosphere of intimidation and surveillance in southern Bhutan. Lhotshampa communities experienced the decree not as a cultural policy but as a declaration that their presence in Bhutan was conditional upon the complete erasure of their identity. Many Lhotshampa interpreted the Kasho as a signal that the government intended to render them culturally invisible or drive them out entirely — an interpretation that subsequent events would confirm.

The Decree as Precursor to Ethnic Cleansing

The 1989 Kasho on Driglam Namzha is inseparable from the Bhutanese refugee crisis that followed. The decree was one of several policies implemented in the late 1980s — including the Citizenship Act of 1985 and the 1988 census — that collectively stripped the Lhotshampa of their rights and identity. When Lhotshampa citizens organized peaceful protests against these policies in 1990, the government responded with mass arrests, torture, and forced expulsions.

Between 1990 and 1993, over 100,000 Lhotshampa were expelled or coerced into leaving Bhutan. Many were forced to sign so-called "voluntary migration forms" under duress. They fled to refugee camps in southeastern Nepal, where they would languish for nearly two decades before a third-country resettlement program, led by the United States, began relocating them in 2007. The Kasho on Driglam Namzha is thus not merely a policy document but the opening act of one of the largest per-capita ethnic cleansing campaigns of the late 20th century^[3].

Continuing Significance

The Driglam Namzha code remains in effect in Bhutan today, and the wearing of gho and kira continues to be required in public and official settings. The Constitution of Bhutan (2008) codified the preservation of cultural heritage as a fundamental duty of the state, and Driglam Namzha is upheld as an expression of national identity. For the Bhutanese diaspora, however, the 1989 Kasho remains a symbol of the state violence that uprooted their communities, and its legacy continues to shape discussions about justice, identity, and the right of return.

The decree has been widely documented and criticized by international human rights organizations, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, as a tool of cultural suppression and a precursor to ethnic cleansing. Scholars of Bhutanese politics have noted that the framing of Driglam Namzha as "cultural preservation" obscures its function as an instrument of ethno-nationalist exclusion directed at a vulnerable minority population.

References

Human Rights Watch. "Last Hope: The Need for Durable Solutions for Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal and India." 2007. https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/05/16/last-hope/need-durable-solutions-bhutanese-refugees-nepal-and-india/need-durable-solutions-bhutanese-refugees-nepal-and-india
Amnesty International. "Bhutan: Forced Exile." ASA 14/04/1992. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa14/004/1992/en/
Refugees International. "Bhutan's Ethnic Cleansing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_of_Lhotshampa_in_Bhutan
Hutt, Michael. Unbecoming Citizens: Culture, Nationhood, and the Flight of Refugees from Bhutan. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Contributed by Anonymous Contributor, Columbus, Ohio