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Caste discrimination in Bhutan manifests in two distinct but overlapping systems of social stratification: the Hindu caste hierarchy practiced within Lhotshampa (ethnic Nepali) communities in southern Bhutan, and traditional occupational and social hierarchies among the Ngalop and other northern Bhutanese groups. While the 2008 Constitution guarantees equality before the law and prohibits discrimination on grounds of race, sex, language, and religion, it does not explicitly name caste as a prohibited ground of discrimination. The mass expulsion of Lhotshampa in the early 1990s removed the majority of the population most affected by Hindu caste structures, but caste dynamics persist in the remaining Lhotshampa communities in Bhutan and among the Bhutanese diaspora.

Caste Among the Lhotshampa

The Lhotshampa of southern Bhutan are a heterogeneous group comprising multiple Hindu-Nepali caste and ethnic communities, including Bahun (Brahmin), Chhetri, Gurung, Limbu, Newar, Rai, Tamang, and Dalit sub-groups such as Kami (blacksmiths), Damai (tailors), and Sarki (cobblers). As with the caste system in Nepal, family names often denote caste position, and caste historically influenced marriage, social interactions, occupation, and access to ritual services.^[1]

Among those Lhotshampa who remained in Bhutan, the caste system's influence has reportedly diminished. The Bhutanese government's emphasis on a unified national identity through Driglam Namzha discouraged overt caste-based practices, though it did so by suppressing ethnic Nepali cultural expression broadly, not by targeting caste discrimination specifically. Observers have noted that remnants of the caste hierarchy are now most visible in Brahmin (priest) communities, who continue to perform Hindu rituals and maintain Brahminical social norms.^[2]

Dalits in Southern Bhutan

Prior to the mass expulsion, Dalit communities in southern Bhutan faced a double burden of discrimination: caste-based prejudice from upper-caste Lhotshampa, and ethnic discrimination from the Ngalop-dominated state. Dalits occupied the lowest rungs of the social hierarchy, working predominantly as artisans and laborers. Their access to education and government services was more limited than that of upper-caste Lhotshampa, who themselves faced discrimination relative to the Ngalop majority.

Specific data on the Dalit population in southern Bhutan before the expulsion is limited. The Bhutanese government did not collect or publish caste-disaggregated statistics. After the expulsion, many Dalits ended up in the UNHCR-administered camps in eastern Nepal, where caste dynamics reproduced within the refugee population, affecting access to leadership positions, NGO employment, and resettlement opportunities.

Social Stratification Among the Ngalop

Among the Ngalop and other northern Bhutanese communities, a traditional social hierarchy existed that was not formally labeled as "caste" but functioned in analogous ways. At the top were noble families and those with connections to the royal court and monastic establishment. Below them were ordinary farmers and herders, and at the bottom were occupational groups associated with tasks considered ritually impure or low-status, such as butchering, metalwork, and certain types of weaving.

This stratification was reinforced by the Buddhist concept of karma, which some interpreted as justifying social inequality — individuals' circumstances were understood as reflecting the merit accumulated in past lives. While modern Bhutanese society has moved away from rigid social hierarchies, observers note that family background and social connections continue to play a significant role in access to education, government employment, and political influence.

Legal Framework

Article 7 of the 2008 Constitution provides that "all persons are equal before the law and are entitled to equal and effective protection of the law and shall not be discriminated against on the grounds of race, sex, language, religion, politics or other status." The phrase "or other status" could potentially encompass caste, but the Constitution does not name it explicitly.^[3]

The National Security Act prohibits words or actions that promote enmity or hatred "on grounds of religion, race, language, caste, or community," carrying penalties of up to three years' imprisonment. This represents the most direct legal reference to caste in Bhutanese law. However, no known prosecutions have been brought specifically under the caste provision of this Act.

Bhutan is not a signatory to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), which addresses caste-based discrimination in its broader framework. UN treaty bodies reviewing Bhutan have occasionally raised caste as a concern, but it has not featured prominently in Bhutan's Universal Periodic Review processes, where ethnic discrimination against the Lhotshampa as a whole has been the primary focus.

Caste in the Diaspora

Among the approximately 85,000 Bhutanese refugees resettled to the United States, Canada, Australia, and other countries, caste dynamics from the Lhotshampa community have persisted to varying degrees. Research on Bhutanese refugee communities in the United States has documented ongoing social stratification by caste, affecting marriage patterns, community leadership, and social networks. Upper-caste Bahun and Chhetri families tend to hold disproportionate representation in community organizations, while Dalit refugees have reported experiencing caste prejudice within resettlement communities.^[4]

At the same time, the resettlement experience has disrupted traditional caste hierarchies. Economic mobility in host countries does not follow caste lines, educational opportunities are available regardless of caste, and inter-caste marriage has become more common among younger generations.

Intersections with Ethnic and Gender Discrimination

Caste discrimination in Bhutan cannot be understood in isolation from the broader pattern of ethnic discrimination against the Lhotshampa. The Bhutanese government's policies of cultural assimilation and eventual expulsion targeted the Lhotshampa as an ethnic group regardless of caste, making caste a secondary axis of discrimination. However, within the Lhotshampa community itself — both in Bhutan and in exile — caste remained a primary organizer of social life.

Gender compounds caste disadvantage. Dalit women in Lhotshampa communities faced triple marginalization — by caste, ethnicity, and gender — with the least access to education, economic resources, and political voice.

Caste Discrimination in Bhutan