U.S. Citizenship Pathways for Bhutanese Refugees

For the approximately 96,000 Bhutanese refugees resettled in the United States since 2007 — the overwhelming majority of them Lhotshampa from the refugee camps in southeastern Nepal — the journey to U.S. citizenship follows a well-defined but sometimes complex legal pathway: from refugee admission, through adjustment to lawful permanent resident (LPR) status ("green card"), to naturalisation as a U.S. citizen. Understanding this pathway, its requirements, timelines, and common obstacles, is essential for Bhutanese families navigating the American immigration system. This article provides a practical overview of each stage, drawing on U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) regulations and the specific experience of the Bhutanese refugee community.^[1]

The process has taken on particular urgency in the mid-2020s, as shifts in U.S. immigration enforcement policy and heightened political rhetoric around deportation have generated anxiety within refugee communities, including among Bhutanese Americans who have not yet completed their naturalisation. While refugees who have obtained U.S. citizenship enjoy the full protections of that status, those who remain lawful permanent residents — or who have failed to adjust their status — may feel more vulnerable to policy changes. Community organisations including the Association of Bhutanese in America (ABA) have intensified their citizenship workshop and legal assistance programmes in response.^[2]

Stage 1: Refugee Admission

Bhutanese refugees entered the United States through the U.S. Refugee Admissions Programme (USRAP), administered by the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM) within the U.S. Department of State, in coordination with UNHCR and the International Organisation for Migration (IOM). Each individual underwent extensive vetting — including biographic checks, biometric screening, medical examinations, and interviews with USCIS officers — before being approved for travel to the United States. Upon arrival, refugees were received by one of nine domestic resettlement agencies (such as the International Rescue Committee, Church World Service, or the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants) that provided initial housing, orientation, and support services.^[3]

Refugees admitted through USRAP receive employment authorisation immediately upon arrival and are eligible for federal refugee assistance programmes through the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR), including cash assistance (typically for 8 months), medical assistance, and access to employment and language training services. Refugee status itself, however, is a temporary immigration classification. Federal law requires — and strongly encourages — refugees to adjust to lawful permanent resident status at the earliest opportunity.^[4]

Stage 2: Adjustment to Lawful Permanent Resident Status (Green Card)

Under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), refugees are required to apply for adjustment of status to lawful permanent resident (LPR) one year after their date of admission to the United States. This is done by filing Form I-485 (Application to Register Permanent Residence or Adjust Status) with USCIS. For refugees, the filing fee for Form I-485 is waived — there is no cost to the applicant. The adjustment is largely procedural for individuals who have maintained their refugee status and have not committed any disqualifying criminal offences or immigration violations.^[5]

Once approved, the applicant receives a green card (Form I-551) with a "date of admission" backdated to the individual's original arrival date in the United States. This backdating is significant because the clock for naturalisation eligibility begins running from this date, not from the date the green card is actually issued. In practice, processing times for refugee adjustment of status have varied from several months to over a year, depending on USCIS workload and any background check delays. For Bhutanese refugees, the adjustment process has generally been straightforward, though some individuals have experienced delays due to name discrepancies between camp documents and U.S. records, or because of minor criminal matters (such as traffic violations) that triggered additional review.^[5]

Stage 3: Naturalisation (U.S. Citizenship)

The final step in the pathway is naturalisation — the legal process by which a lawful permanent resident becomes a U.S. citizen. Refugees who have held LPR status for at least five years (calculated from their original date of admission to the U.S.) are eligible to apply by filing Form N-400 (Application for Naturalization) with USCIS. The filing fee is $760 (as of 2024), though fee waivers are available for applicants who demonstrate financial hardship. For Bhutanese refugees who arrived in the first years of the resettlement programme (2007-2009), eligibility for naturalisation began in 2012-2014; those who arrived later became eligible on a rolling basis.^[6]

The naturalisation process involves several requirements that applicants must satisfy:

Key Naturalisation Requirements:

Continuous residence: Five years of continuous residence in the United States as an LPR (absences of more than 6 months may disrupt continuity).
Physical presence: At least 30 months of physical presence in the United States during the five-year statutory period.
Good moral character: No disqualifying criminal convictions or other conduct issues during the statutory period.
English language proficiency: Ability to read, write, and speak basic English (with exemptions for applicants over 50 who have been LPRs for 20+ years, or over 55 with 15+ years).
Civics knowledge: Pass a test on U.S. government and history (100-question study guide, 10 questions asked, 6 correct required).
Oath of Allegiance: Take the Oath of Allegiance to the United States at a naturalisation ceremony.

The English and Civics Tests

The English language and civics tests are the components of the naturalisation process that cause the most anxiety among Bhutanese applicants, particularly older adults who may have limited formal education and whose English proficiency remains basic despite years of residence. The English test assesses reading (the applicant must read one of three sentences correctly), writing (the applicant must write one of three sentences correctly), and speaking (assessed through the naturalisation interview itself). The civics test draws from a published list of 100 questions about American government, history, and geography; the USCIS officer asks 10 questions and the applicant must answer at least 6 correctly.^[7]

Community organisations have responded to this challenge by organising citizenship preparation classes, often taught in Nepali and English by bilingual community members or volunteers. ABA and its affiliated local organisations, along with resettlement agencies and public libraries, have offered these classes in cities across the country. Study materials are available in multiple languages through USCIS, and several nonprofits have developed Nepali-language study guides specifically for the Bhutanese community. For applicants who are over 65 and have been LPRs for at least 20 years, the civics test is simplified to 20 questions (with only 6 asked), and accommodations are available for individuals with documented disabilities.^[7]

Common Obstacles and Delays

While the naturalisation pathway is legally straightforward for most Bhutanese refugees, several practical obstacles can complicate or delay the process:

Name discrepancies: Many Bhutanese refugees have experienced inconsistencies in the spelling of their names across different documents — camp registration cards, IOM travel documents, Social Security cards, green cards, and state-issued IDs may all reflect different transliterations of Nepali names. These discrepancies can trigger additional USCIS scrutiny and require legal name change proceedings or sworn affidavits to resolve.

Travel-related issues: Some applicants who have travelled extensively — particularly those who have returned to Nepal to visit family — may face questions about whether their absences disrupted the "continuous residence" requirement. Trips of more than six months can be problematic, and even shorter trips may raise questions if the pattern suggests the applicant's primary residence is outside the United States.

Financial barriers: The $760 application fee (subject to change) is significant for families with limited income. While fee waivers exist, the application process itself can be confusing, and some eligible applicants may not know they can request a waiver. Legal assistance for complicated cases can add additional costs, particularly for individuals with criminal history issues or complex immigration records.^[6]

Dual Citizenship Considerations

The question of dual citizenship is largely theoretical for Bhutanese refugees, but it is one that community members sometimes raise. The United States generally permits dual nationality — a U.S. citizen can also hold citizenship of another country. However, Bhutan's Citizenship Act of 1985 does not recognise dual citizenship, and the Bhutanese government stripped citizenship from the Lhotshampa population during the crisis of the late 1980s and early 1990s. In practice, nearly all Bhutanese refugees resettled in the United States have no recognised Bhutanese citizenship to maintain. Those who naturalise as U.S. citizens therefore acquire their first recognised nationality in decades — a development of profound symbolic as well as legal significance for a community defined by statelessness and displacement.^[2]

For the small number of individuals who may retain or claim Nepali residency connections (having lived in Nepal for extended periods), the implications of U.S. naturalisation for Nepali residency or visa status should be clarified with legal counsel, as Nepal's laws regarding citizenship and residency have their own complexities.

Current Urgency (2025 Context)

The immigration enforcement environment of 2025 has added urgency to citizenship efforts within the Bhutanese American community. While naturalised U.S. citizens are protected from deportation (except in rare cases of denaturalisation for fraud), lawful permanent residents who have not yet naturalised may face increased scrutiny, particularly if they have any criminal history or immigration irregularities. Community leaders have emphasised the importance of completing the naturalisation process as soon as possible for all eligible individuals, and legal aid organisations have reported increased demand for citizenship application assistance from Bhutanese clients. The message from community organisations has been clear: citizenship provides the strongest possible legal protection, and those who are eligible should not delay.^[4]